Very few compounds have attracted as much scientific and regulatory interest like per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Widely referred to as “forever chemicals”, PFAS have been detected across drinking water, soils, food chains, and even human bloodstreams. Their strong carbon–fluorine (C–F) bond gives PFAS unusual thermal and chemical stability and makes them resistant to natural degradation.1 However, it’s this stability that makes PFAS invaluable in applications ranging from non-stick coatings to firefighting foams.
Firefighting foam contains forever chemicals that leach into the environment. Image Credit: Peter Togel/Shutterstock.com
A Shift in Mindset
PFAS contamination is now global. The problem is measured not just in concentration but in duration, and for decades, remediation relied on trapping PFAS rather than destroying them.
Rather than simply removing forever chemicals from water or soil, researchers are now finding ways to dismantle them and reclaim their useful components using chemistry-led approaches. A key mechanochemical method uses phosphate salts and mechanical energy to mineralize PFAS.2 The significance of this approach is the complete destruction of it, enabling sustainable fluorine recycling.
Background
PFAS belong to a diverse family of fluorinated compounds distinguished by carbon atom chains or groups that are fully or partially substituted with fluorine. They have been used since the mid-20th century in textiles, food packaging, electronics, and healthcare applications
Their defining feature, the C–F bond, creates both their function and challenge. High bond dissociation energies make these compounds resistant to oxidation, reduction, and microbial attack, making them resilient to conventional water treatment processes. Moreover, the diversity of PFAS structures further complicates remediation. Different functional groups (e.g., carboxylates, sulfonates, polymers) respond differently to treatment, meaning no single approach has proven universally effective to date. Even advanced destruction methods, such as thermal incineration or electrochemical oxidation, often require harsh conditions or struggle to achieve full defluorination.4
The Research
The recent mechanochemical approach offers a unique method for PFAS breakdown. In this process, PFAS are milled with potassium phosphate salts under solvent-free conditions, with mechanical energy driving chemical reactions.
Unlike high-temperature incineration, this method operates under relatively mild conditions while still inducing cleavage of the strong C–F bonds. The process mineralizes PFAS into inorganic fluoride species, such as potassium fluoride (KF), with high fluorine recovery efficiency.2
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Crucially, the method has been shown to work with a variety of PFAS molecules, including polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). The range is important because many technologies are limited to specific PFAS types. Mechanistically, the reaction involves phosphate oxyanion attack of the C–F bond, allowing substitution-like pathways.
Why It Matters
If scalable, this chemistry could transform PFAS management by destroying PFAS and converting them into stable inorganic compounds. This contrasts sharply with adsorption-based systems that simply transfer PFAS from one medium to another.
Second, the recovery of fluoride as KF introduces the concept of fluorine upcycling. Fluorine is a strategically essential element used in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and advanced materials. The extraction of fluorspar from PFAS waste could contribute to a more circular chemical economy.
Other emerging methods reinforce this trend. For example, low-temperature mineralization strategies have shown that PFAS can be converted into fluoride ions via targeted chemical activation pathways.3 Meanwhile, photocatalytic systems have achieved defluorination at relatively mild temperatures (40-60 oC), highlighting the growing diversity of chemical approaches.5 Hence, PFAS destruction has moved from theory toward practical feasibility.
Reality Check
Despite these advances, significant challenges remain before such methods can be deployed at scale. Scalability is a central concern. Mechanochemical processes are well established at the laboratory scale and need to be adapted to operate continuously and at high throughput.
Matrix complexity is a challenge. Real-world PFAS contamination occurs in heterogeneous matrices, such as soils, sludges, and mixed waste streams, where competing reactions, moisture, and co-contaminants may inhibit performance.
Energy and economics must be carefully evaluated. Even solvent-free processes require mechanical or electrical energy inputs, and their overall efficiency must be benchmarked against established technologies.
Finally, destruction completeness remains critical. Partial degradation risks generating intermediate products whose environmental impact is not fully understood. Many existing technologies still struggle to achieve full mineralization, particularly under realistic conditions.5
Outlook
The next phase of PFAS research should now translate promising chemistry into deployable treatment systems. This will require progress across several fronts to validate promising methods at pilot scale with real contaminated samples. One method would be to integrate them into existing workflows by adsorption followed by on-site destruction. Another one could be process intensification through continuous mechanochemical reactors. Therefore, robust lifecycle assessments will be essential for measuring eco-friendliness and cost-effectiveness.
Ultimately, these advances suggest that new chemistry is changing what can be achieved. PFAS remain extraordinarily persistent, and they are no longer chemically untouchable. The shift from containment to destruction of PFAS is already underway, but scaling remains the key question.
References and Further Reading
- Meegoda, J. N. et al. (2022). A review of PFAS destruction technologies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19, 16397. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/24/16397
- Yang, L. et al. (2025). Phosphate-enabled mechanochemical PFAS destruction for fluoride reuse. Nature, 640, 100–105. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08698-5
- Trang, B. et al. (2022). Low-temperature mineralization of perfluorocarboxylic acids. Science, 377, 839–845. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm8868
- Nasrollahpour, S. et al. (2026). Biodegradation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances: mechanisms, challenges, and emerging strategies for sustainable remediation. Environ. Sci.: Water Res. Technol., 12, 397–420. https://pubs.rsc.org/ew/article/12/2/397/1248671/Biodegradation-of-per-and-polyfluoroalkyl
- Zhang, H. et al. (2024). Photocatalytic low-temperature defluorination of PFASs. Nature. 635(8039), 610-617. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39567791/
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